Provides guidance to Maryland school districts in planning schools that support smart growth. Topics covered include walkability, bicycle access, environmental protection, high performance buildings, schools as community centers, school and site size, co-location and shared use, and energy efficiency in school transportation. Case studies accompany each topic and a model approach for school planning, location, and construction is included. 42 references complete the document. 78p.

Examines the Manassas Park, Virginia, City Schools' 10-year turnaround from a low- performing district to one in which every school was accredited by 2005. The turnaround is largely credited to superintendent Tom DeBolt, who was hired in 1995. The author considers the district's turnaround from four organizational perspectives and addresses the critical role of professional and political leadership in overcoming the challenges of low morale, scarce resources, changing demographics, and dysfunctional school-community relations. The book offers lessons for any school system facing the challenges of low performance, underfunding, political turmoil, and a culture of low expectations, with special attention to school size and the impact of improved facilities. 182p.

Illustrates how nine high performing, small urban high schools across the U.S. are thinking about and organizing their resources strategically to best meet their students' most pressing needs. The report provides a look at how leaders in these schools carefully and purposefully think about how they use every staff member, each moment of the school day, and every dollar to support student learning. The report also illustrates how principals carefully select teaching staff to meet high standards and fit specific school design needs, how students spend 20% more time (on average) in school each day and 233 more days over four years on core academic compared to their peers in traditional high schools, and how teachers devote five times more hours to collaborating and professional development than local districts require. 108p.

Presents findings from a study of Baltimore's five-year high school reform, which included breaking large schools into smaller, more autonomous units. Using administrative data, the researchers found that test scores and attendance rates were higher for students in Baltimore's innovation high schools than in the city's comprehensive or newly formed neighborhood high schools. Students in innovation and neighborhood schools also showed more stability in their enrollment than their counterparts in comprehensive schools. These findings remained after controlling for students' backgrounds and previous achievements even though students at innovation schools were more academically advantaged than their peers in other schools prior to entering high school. 31p.

Examines 14 of New York City's new, smaller high schools that graduated their first class in June, 2006. Data indicate that attendance is high, ninth grade promotion rates are high, and a majority of students are graduating. A significant number of those graduates are applying to and being accepted by postsecondary institutions, over half of whom will be the first in their family to attend college. The report provides a snapshot of the promise and impact of these small high schools in the lives of adolescent learners from some of New York's most underserved communities. Includes ten references. 23p.

Proposes a "pattern language" with which planners can explore architectural details that can enhance their schools design. The designs focus on smaller, more personalized learning communities that can boost student achievement. A wide range of indoor and outdoor design features are presented, organized as guiding principles for student success. These are personalized, learning-focused, collaborative, community connected, and adaptable. 156p.

Provides a summary of research on small schools and shared facilities showing that, on average, smaller schools provide a safer and more challenging school environment that leads to higher academic achievement and graduation rates, fewer disciplinary problems, and greater satisfaction for families, students, and teachers. Also includes 22 case studies of public schools in 11 states, representing urban, suburban, and rural communities; district-run and charter public schools; and co-housing of almost 50 schools and social service agencies. These studies document the ability of smaller schools to improve academic achievement and behavior in safe, nurturing, and stimulating environments. The studies further suggest that sharing facilities with other organizations can enable schools to offer broader learning opportunities for students, provide higher quality services to students and their families, and present a way to efficiently use tax dollars. 68p.

Characterizes small schools, differentiates the notions about small schools from the concept of small learning communities (SLC), proposes the term "learning communities of practice (LCP)" as the larger autonomous places that can support the educational needs of 400 students. 3p.

Since 2001, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has funded the development of small learning communities in America’s high schools with the ultimate goal of graduating students “college or work ready.” SLCs are often called houses, schools-within-a-school, or academies and have varying degrees of autonomy in the areas of budgets, hiring, and curriculum. This report reviews lessons learned from the process of converting large comprehensive high schools into small learning communities. It provides recommendations on leadership, implementation, and programs for schools considering this work. 22p.

School district size is important to policymakers and educators who need to determine the most effective way to structure school organization. For more than 40 years, a growing body of research has focused on the relationship between school size and school effectiveness (Monk & Plecki, 1999). Early studies did not address the effect of school size on student performance but focused more on school expenditures (Brazer, 1959; Hirsch, 1959; Michelson, 1972). Later studies switched the focus to the relationship between school size and student achievement (Summers & Wolfe, 1977; Walberg & Fowler, 1987; White & Tweeten, 1973). This study addressed the limitations of previous literature by comparing different school district types in rural Pennsylvania to determine whether or not the structure of school districts has an impact on fiscal management, administrative capacity, and student achievement. Overall, the research did not find any evidence to support the notion that bigger districts are better districts, in terms of cost, administration or academic achievement, in rural Pennsylvania. [Author's abstract] 16p.

Identifies ten research-based attributes of small schools that are proven to have a positive impact on learning. The report explores the evidence of each element's impact and why it confers advantages on children. Among the attributes identified are: greater participation in extra-curricular activities, increased school safety, smaller class size, and wider grade-span configurations. The report finds that small schools intrinsically foster close relationships that not only help children feel connected to the school community and reduce alienation, but also lead to increased student learning. The close relationships inherent in small schools also have a positive impact on educators, as teachers in small schools tend to be more satisfied with their jobs, have less absenteeism, and take more responsibility for ensuring that their students are successful in school. 23p.

Assesses the effect of size of school enrollment on state test scores, attendance, dropout, and retention rates. Scores on state assessments were typically as high or higher at large schools than those at smaller schools. Scores for middle and high school students were generally higher for those enrolled at larger schools. Scores for elementary school students attending relatively large schools were generally as high or higher than for those attending smaller schools. The differences in performance may be the result of advantages larger schools can provide such as a wider range of classes. Teachers and administrators of larger schools may also have found ways to address the negative aspects of attending a larger school, such as creating the smaller learning communities. High-performing students may seek out large schools in order to take advantage of the wider ranges of classes. Schools with high scores could also attract more students, so that performance affects size. 78p.

Analyzes how small schools compare to the rest of Chicago public schools, taking into account individual- and school-level characteristics. Survey data measuring the experiences of students and teachers in these schools and school district records were used to analyze a variety of educational outcomes. It appeared that small schools are fostering more personal and supportive contexts for both teachers and students. These differences may be connected to lower dropout rates and absences that we found in the small schools, but they do not appear to be spurring increased instructional reform activity, differing instructional practices, or improved student achievement test scores. Instructional reform efforts, instructional practice, and academic test scores all appear the same at small schools as at other CPS schools serving comparable students, which is determined to be a sizable shortcoming of the reform effort. 63p.

Reviews eight school size studies performed by doctoral students and graduate faculty at the University of South Carolina. These studies examine the relationship of South Carolina school size to academic achievement and to costs per student at all grade span groupings, including elementary, middle, and high school. The studies are categorized by grade span covered, and their methodology and findings summarized. Results of the studies are varied and sometimes contradictory, and additional issues arise such as poverty, differing results in grade spans, cost versus outcomes, middle and elementary school climate factors, and variance of the South Carolina findings from those in other states. Smaller middle schools appeared to produce better student outcomes, and where larger elementary and high schools appear to perform better, there is evidence that results vary dramatically depending on the children served. Includes 23 references. 8p.

Describes one eastern North Carolina high school's initiative to implement Smaller Learning Communities as a strategy for strategic change. The study revealed that the implementation of SLC's elevated expectations within the school and community. The SLC's provided support for all stakeholders through structured systems that increased leadership capacity, self-efficacy, and personal and professional growth. As SLC's were created, learning communities formed that acted as catalysts of change within the school and district. The greatest gains in student achievement were experienced by students specifically in SLC structures. Students benefited most when SLC structures and strategies were implemented. Teachers' level of collegial support was greatest for those involved in SLC structures. Parents and community members viewed the SLC implementation as providing a specialized experience for the high school students and viewed the restructuring in a positive light. It was found that SLC implementation was very time-intensive for teachers and administrators, with SLC administration and teachers feeling isolated. Interestingly, they were deeply committed even though implementation was time-intensive. 281p.

Highlights the role that state educational policies have in either magnifying the challenges of declining enrollment, or conversely, mitigating them. The report contains 20 policy recommendations, primarily focused on state funding formulas, but also on state support for facility projects, technology, and cooperative arrangements, as well as strictly local control over consolidation, without state incentives or interference. The recommended state and local policies can buy time and give communities and economies time to rebound and/or adjust to population and revenue loss. 17p.

Presents findings of a study indicating that smaller high schools (<600 students) cost no more per student to build than large schools (>600 students), and that they actually cost less per square foot than large high schools. Based on the research, nine recommendations for planning schools of appropriate size are offered, along with four recommendations for additional research. Includes 21 references. 23p.

Presents California's requirements for school districts seeking increased state funding designated for smaller school projects. These rules itemize the required format of the application, the state review process, the elements that the project must address in the proposal, and the evaluation criteria. A list of additional print and online resources is included. 8p.

Evaluates how a sample of nine host school facilities housing 34 small schools are performing with regard to safety and the use of space. It addresses whether or not the current New York City Dept. of Education policies of housing new small schools in shared facilities with large, traditional high schools should be continued and, if not, what options should be implemented in order to ensure safe, effective schools in the reform environment. The DOE knowingly placed small schools in some of the city's most dangerous school facilities already housing "Impact Schools." Findings include that six of the nine complexes evaluated had crime rates ranging from 5% to 105% higher than average crime rates of other facilities of similar size, that the practice of housing new small schools with large struggling schools replicated problems of the large school, that tensions between large and small schools sharing facility space were fostered by disparities, such as larger class sizes and higher proportions of ELL and special needs students in large schools compared to their neighboring small schools, and that host facilities failed to meet seven of the eight components considered essential for sharing space with small schools. Details on methodology, including interviews, data analysis and school visits are included, as are 58 references. 40p.

Presents results of studies in Maine indicating that a consolidated school can serve the same student population and offer the same curriculum with less square footage and thus at a reduced cost than two or more smaller schools. Operating and personnel costs are also lower in the consolidated school option, with savings approaching $3,500 per student over 40 years in Maine. As a school's enrollment decreases, the square footage and subsequent cost per student increases. Interpretation of the data by the Maine Department of Education is included. 19p.

The research project describes a Providence-based non-profit organization called the Big Picture Company (BP), and its efforts to replicate its small high school design in multiple communities throughout the United States (with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). It refers implicitly also to BP's ambition (and that of the Gates Foundation) to have influence beyond these schools -- to change American high schooling in fundamental ways. The researchers wanted to know what challenges BP would encounter as it took on these tasks, and to infer from its experience what other school designers might encounter. They also wanted to document the strategies that BP might employ to manage these challenges, and to assess their relative strength. They laid out the challenges and strategies in essays, situating both with the context of other scaling-up efforts within and beyond the field of education. In the first two essays, the authors name what they take to be the seven challenges of scaling up new school designs, and illustrate five of them with data gathered from studying both the BP experience and the literature of scaling up educational and other innovations. The third essay explores the 6th challenge, the challenge of obtaining and managing resources sufficient to scale. The fourth and final essay, explores the seventh challenge -- negotiating the politics of local adoption. 171p.

This analyzes the research findings of 19 recent studies on class size and academic achievement. Some researchers have not found a connection between smaller classes and higher student achievement, but most of the research shows that when class size reduction programs are well-designed and implemented in the primary grades (K-3), student achievement rises as class size drops.

Reviews the history of and literature on rural school consolidation, defines consolidation, and addresses current research and issues related to consolidation with respect to school size, economies of scale, and student achievement. Includes 89 references. 21p.

Summarizes the literature on the effects of school size to describe what is currently known about its relationship to economic efficiency, curricular diversity, academic achievement, and related variables. Two curvilinear relationships are identified: one for economic efficiency and one for educational outcomes. In both cases, increasing size initially brings positive effects but these trends are reversed as size continues to increase. The point of diminishing returns for educational outcomes occurs with fewer students than is the case for economic efficiency. Optimal school size can be defined by a range in which economic efficiency and educational outcomes both show positive relationships to larger school size. Recommendations are made to guide future research and to help educational decision-makers. Includes 89 references. 24p.

Proposes design solutions to promote the success of small schools that share buildings: dedicated space; separate entrances,lobbies, graphics, color schemes, and furnishings; flexibility; a user-driven design process; and school-community partnerships. Scheduling and other management strategies are also covered. Includes 12 references. 7p.

Compilation of research conducted between 1992 and 2003 on the subject of school size. Includes an abstract and link to the research. 9p.

This book focuses on how large, under-performing urban high schools can become learning environments characterized by academic rigor, curricular relevance, and mutually supportive relationships. This book explores how these communities are using small school development as a central strategy for improving large high schools and overhauling the way school districts do business.

Reports on excess capacity in the District of Columbia Public Schools, with the District having 459 students per building, compared to 682 in 45 other urban school systems studied. That difference contributed to higher costs, with $1,083 per student for maintenance and facilities costs in 2004-05, compared with $603 per student in the other urban districts; $525 per student for energy and utility costs, compared with $191 in the other systems; and $714 per student for school administrative personnel, compared with $582 in the other cities. Only 32 percent of the District's per-pupil spending went toward classroom instruction, compared with an average of 42.7 percent in the other systems, the study found. The report recommends that D.C. school officials "resize" the number of buildings and employees in the system and invest the savings in after-school tutoring and other programs designed to boost dismal student achievement. Without suggesting how much space should be eliminated, the study said the system could save $500,000 to $1.5 million a year for every building it closes. 173p.

Describes the redesign of 21 mostly low-performing large New York City schools into smaller learning communities sharing space with each other and with the large schools they were formed out of. The background legislation that enabled the changes and the adaptive reuse of large buildings are described, and the footprint of the small schools is detailed and illustrated with individual floor plans reflecting building configuration and the instructional program and special uses of various classrooms. Also described is the participatory master planning process that involved teachers and students. 34p.

Presents ten strategies for improving the work environment of teachers in at-risk schools. Facilities issues are covered in strategy five, which concerns small learning communities and small class sizes. Each strategy is accompanied by an annotated list of resources. 51p.

Small schools are located in a variety of different environments. The majority of small schools must share a physical building with other schools and must negotiate the use of the shared space. This outlines some tips for creating more successful shared facility situations for small schools, including: ensure autonomy between schools; develop strong working relations between school leadership; communicate a commitment from the higher administration; ensure regular communication between principals; define a conflict resolution process; establish a neutral facilities coordinator; and create a shared facilities memorandum of understanding. 4p.

Shares preliminary information about how the New York City Department of Education and its partners are working to create smaller, more personalized learning environments for the city's secondary students. In addition to describing the population served by the district's small schools and providing some initial data on how these students are faring in their new schools, the report also includes a broad-brush profile of one of the schools, Marble Hill School for International Studies, located in the Bronx. In the 2003-04 school year, student attendance rates at the city's small schools averaged 90.5%, compared to 83% citywide. In 2004, 92.2% of ninth graders in small schools advanced to tenth grade, compared to the citywide average of 68.3%. 15p.

Argues for small schools in three ways. First, analysis of more than three thousand construction projects shows that smaller schools are no more expensive to build than much larger schools. Second, analysis of the budgets of 25 good small schools throughout the United States demonstrates that on average they spend less per student on educational program, maintenance and operations than the per-pupil expenditure in their districts, yet they achieve results that are equal to or better than schools in the same area. Third, these schools offer innovative and effective educational programs, facilities, and strategies for cost effectiveness that can serve as models to people interested in cost-effective good small schools. Appendices contain contact information, budgets, test scores, a strategies grid, a list of criteria for school selection, and 30 references. The accompanying website www.goodsmallschools.org supplements the written report, and contains many documents from the schools and links to additional resources. 66p.

Critiquing arguments from the "small school" movement in cities such as New York and Chicago, this paper provides a basis for making sense of the apparent divergence in policies governing schooling structures in rural and urban places. Its interpretation examines the way the urban small schools movement works to valorize (and hence draw support from) the prevailing political consensus, which favors charter schools and standards-based reform. Small rural schools, by contrast, tend to represent traditional arrangements, both in political and pedagogical terms; and reformers tend to see such schools as "backward" and corrupt. These judgments, based primarily on political and ideological grounds, attend little to the empirical findings about school size, which tend to show that small schools confer advantages in all locales to all but the highest-SES students. 19p.

Investigates the impact of school size on a range of student, teacher and school outcomes by an examination of existing studies. The findings suggest that there is no overall relationship between secondary school size and outcomes. However, at the level of the individual outcomes, the findings emerge that suggest a reasonable confidence that examination attainment is maximized and absence is minimized at a certain point in the range of secondary school size. Further, costs per student decline as schools get larger. However, they also suggest that teacher and student perceptions of school climate decline and some kinds of violent behavior may increase. This review would seem to refute some of the more prevalent myths regarding the advantages and disadvantages of smaller and larger schools. For example, that student achievement is universally higher in smaller schools and that student behavior is universally worse in larger schools have been shown to be inconsistent with the current evidence. The relationship appears to be much more complex than such simple arguments suggest. 200p.

Advocates competition over consolidation as a means to achieve school efficiency in Arizona, with school choice and expansion of charter school opportunities recommended. The costs and experiences of Arizona and other states with consolidation as well as the impact of consolidation on student achievement are discussed. 46p.

Assesses the effect of school consolidation on education, revealing that savings realized by consolidating schools did not necessarily yield educational benefits, as graduates of smaller schools appear to have fared better as wage earners. Larger districts made up of smaller schools do, however, show management and educational achievement advantages. A review of the literature, explanation of the study methodology, and 25 references are included. 31p.

Profiles five smaller high schools where innovative programs are resulting in improved academic achievement. The six key findings from this study are that the schools serve ethnically and socially diverse students, are highly sought after, offer rigorous and engaging curricula, maintain supportive learning environments, have higher than average attendance rates, and have higher test scores, graduation rates, and college admission rates. 49p.

Reviews the process that converted two high school classrooms into a graphic arts studio to be shared by the three small schools housed within the building. The process brought together students, teachers, designers, administrators, and other professionals representing the three schools. They worked together to program and design a flexible space that retained territorial preferences for the three schools. 24p.

Between 1990 and 2000, total enrollment in West Virginia decreased 11%, 202 schools were closed, and education spending increased by 16%. Per pupil expenditures increased more in West Virginia than in any other state, but student achievement remained stagnant during this period. Transportation and administrative costs rose in spite of the declining numbers of students. This report includes analysis of primary state policies that have led to consolidation including: 1) construction and renovations requirements that mandate minimum enrollments; 2) school funding formulas that discourage efficiency and flexibility; 3) transportation allowance that has no upper limit other than cost per mile traveled. Includes 8 references. 31p.

Using New York City's former South Bronx High School as an example, this document discusses techniques for distinguishing by graphics the small schools that share a large building. These include exterior banners and signage that feature distinctive typefaces, colors, and symbols. 34p.

Suggests adapting the model of the ancient Greek "agora" to create successful small schools and describes several that have done so while reducing costs. These innovative urban small schools are the modern equivalent of the agora, where students and adults interact with the community, share resources, and learn from each other. Strategies used by communities to keep schools small and local include sharing facilities with other schools, reconfiguring large high schools, sharing with an education partner, sharing with a noneducation partner, sharing with the community, leasing space in the community, using the small facility in new ways, leasing the whole facility, and capitalizing on the facility. (Contains 18 references.) 2p.

Describes the extensive busing of West Virginia school students, resulting in high per- pupil transportation expenses, and long bus rides for many students. School consolidation is blamed for the situation, with students and families complaining about the detriment to extracurricular activities, as well as family and community life. The improvement of existing community-based school facilities are proposed as a solution. 18p.

In 2002, Florida voters passed a Class Size Amendment to the state constitution that limits the number of public-school students assigned to each teacher. Many school districts indicated that amid unprecedented budgetary shortfalls they could comply with the new law only by increasing their use of portable facilities and prototype designs. Recognizing the potential harm these temporary solutions could have on school design and the learning environment, an AIA Florida task force developed alternative solutions. This report outlines the pertinent issues and proposes ways to implement the law without compromising standards of education, and suggests ways to provide solutions and ensure implementation in a design-sensitive and cost-effective manner. 12p.

The relationship between elementary school enrollment and fifth-grade achievement was explored using data from a large urban Missouri school district. The district's 39 elementary schools received uniform allocations of resources from the district and used the same instructional materials but varied considerably in K-5 enrollment, socioeconomic status (SES), and student achievement. Statistically significant differences were found among the mean levels of achievement of students in the five school enrollment groups. Smaller schools tended to be in the older inner-city part of the district, while larger schools were found in the newer suburban parts of the district. There was a general decline in achievement as school enrollments increased, for both the inner-city and suburban schools. [Authors' abstract] 25p.

Many discussions of school size tend to concentrate on secondary sources, such as other literature reviews. Although this review does examine some secondary sources, it focuses on empirical research. Recent research suggests that smaller schools may be linked to improved attendance and participation in school activities. Some studies claim that smaller schools may also be associated with higher achievement, although other studies indicate that school size does not have a significant impact on student performance and cite other variables such as district and school affluence as more reliable predictors of achievement. In fact, some studies suggest that students in more affluent districts may benefit from larger schools. Given the lack of consensus in the field over these issues, as well as practical issues related to rapid growth, limited funds, and the cost-effectiveness of smaller schools, many administrators and policy makers may prefer to pursue alternative reforms. It may be possible to achieve the desired student outcomes by reorganizing school populations, or by creating smaller learning communities within existing facilities. [Author's abstract] 14p.

Much like office buildings that house several companies, a school building can house several autonomous schools, each with their own administration, faculty and budgets. This toolkit describes examples of schools sharing buildings in Chicago, and gives practical advice for how to do this successfully. Recommendations include: establish a commitment to shared equitable space; build and maintain stong working relationships; support school identity and autonomy with visual cues; plan for the future with a memorandum of understanding; develop a conflict resolution process; capitalize on the benefits of building sharing. 23p.

A team from Princeton University's School of Architects followed a group of innovative educators in the Bronx High Schools as they rethought the architecture of small schools. Seeking to imagine the creation of educational spaces where students and teachers can truly learn through collaboration and challenge the traditional ways of thinking about size and scale, this report responds to the diversity of the Bronx, and offers ideas as to how to reclaim space administrative and obsolete spaces for use as classrooms. This toolkit's proposed strategy for the successful incubation and growth of new small schools begins with architecture, but also suggests the formation of design teams to take non-architectural interventions such as graphic design, furniture organization and educational planning just as seriously. 80p.

This volume documents the work that resulted from the Chicago Public Schools Design Competition, explaining research and policies underlying the competition's criteria. The volume has three parts. Book 1, "The Chicago Experience," written by the competition's organizers, describes the competition's process and explains how it allowed community members, educational experts, and architects to collaborate in the design of schools that will foster the education of students, support quality teaching, and increase community involvement. It also chronicles the changing trends in public school architecture in Chicago. Book 2, "New School Designs," offers plans and ideas for schools designed for the 21st century. The competition's two winning designs and those of the finalists are extensively documented in drawings and renderings. Book 3, "Policies and Principles," explores policies that provided the impetus for the Chicago competition. It discusses the advantages of smaller learning environments; the benefits to students, teachers, and communities of universal design; application of sustainable design to the creation of public schools; and the importance of cost feasibility when building on a public budget. The section ends with a complete list of the winning, finalist, and notable architectural firms involved in the competition and a list of professional resources for creating new schools. 136p.

This is an account of the promise and challenges of smaller more personalized schools. Each chapter describes a different small school and how it works, including the Julia Richman Education Complex, the Urban Academy, High Tech High, the Met, and the Minnesota New Country School. 144p.

This review explores which facility attributes affect academic outcomes the most and in what manner and degree. The research is examined in six categories: indoor air quality, ventilation, and thermal comfort; lighting; acoustics; building age and quality; school size; and class size. The review concludes that school facilities affect learning. Spatial configurations, noise, heat, cold, light, and air quality obviously bear on students' and teachers' ability to perform. Needed are clean air, good light, and a quiet, comfortable, and safe learning environment. The review asserts that this can be and generally has been achieved within the limits of existing knowledge, technology, and materials; it simply requires adequate funding and competent design, construction, and maintenance. 24p.

The conversion of large urban high schools into small, focused learning centers is gaining currency as an education reform strategy. This publication provides guidelines, along with guiding questions, for those considering such a conversion. The first section explores the structural, organizational, and political challenges involved in converting large high schools into identifiable, autonomous learning communities. It begins with a discussion of the advantages of "small." It continues with an examination of the experiences of some large schools that have broken into small learning communities but have failed to produce the desired results. From these efforts have emerged eight strategies, which the guide presents in detail. The second section of the guide explores the challenges that emerge once a school has reorganized into small units. It looks at how these units stay focused on the combination of effective learning principles and practices that "small" makes possible. It presents examples of routines and best practices from successful small schools, alternative schools, and youth-development programs. Finally, the guide presents a tool, "the five Cs," for blending youth development approaches with contextual and authentic learning to create effective learning environments. 27p.

This paper asserts that instead of assuming that the future of learning has to take place in buildings we happen to have now, districts can let innovations in instruction and learning drive how they provide, design, and use school buildings. With this goal in mind, this paper looks at five trends in education and what they imply about the kinds of buildings and spaces districts will need for tomorrow’s schools. The five trends are: (1) pressure on schools to perform for all students, not just those who learn best in traditional settings; (2) demands for the personalization of learning, so that every child has a chance to learn and families have choices; (3) new technologies that will change how teachers teach and students learn; (4) periodic shortages of teachers (and school leaders) linked to swings in the economy; and (5) shifts in student population and residency patterns that will affect not only the demand for schools, but also the demands on schools. Suggested strategies include developing smaller schools, sharing buildings between multiple schools, adapting facilities for both commercial and educational uses, and partnerships with companies and organizations outside the education sector. The paper also includes an extensive case study on the high school built by the public-private partnership of the Niagara Falls City School District and Honeywell, Inc. The case study includes specifics on the financing deal, the flow of funds, tax strategies, and risk management. 29p.

Relates the experiences of small school advocates who felt blocked from the school planning process after West Virginia awarded its counties planning grants in 1998. The author cites a post-planning survey that found flaws in the planning process, with parents and students typically shut out of the process. A climate of exclusion, secrecy, and conflict of interest is cited, and case studies from five counties are included. 13p.

This brochure provides information about the current state of high schools and highlights key research on the benefits of small schools for all students. 6p.

This booklet presents one architectural firm's understanding and application of the latest educational research in real-world settings. It asserts that architects can make significant contributions to education by designing schools that uniquely facilitate improvements in organizational structure, learning methods, or both. It presents lessons learned about designing schools and about the process and the planning that are required to align facilities with programs, and architecture with education. The booklet provides examples of environments shaped by attention to communities' individual needs, including small schools, project-based learning, and community schools. Following an introduction, the discussion is broken into the following chapters: (1) "Schools That Fit;" (2) "Toward Better Schools;" (3) "Schools That Fit Communities;" (4) "Schools That Fit Education Leaders;" (5) "Schools That Fit Teachers;" (6) "Schools That Fit Learners;" and (7) "Schools That Fit Children." 64p.

An essay “Big Plans for Small Schools” serves as a companion piece to a two audio-CD set on small schools, providing a general overview of the movement. The essay outlines the current opportunity to rethink the mega high school and use the dollars earmarked for school facilities to redesign or construct smaller schools. Interviews with experts include Tom Vander Ark, Gates Foundation; Craig Howley, ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools; Mike Klonsky, Small Schools Workshop, and others. 27p.

This study examined how Arkansas students' achievement is related to poverty, school and district size, and the interaction between these factors. Achievement test scores from grades four through nine in all Arkansas schools were supplied by the Arkansas Department of Education. Poverty levels were determined by percentage of students receiving subsidized meals. Findings indicate that the higher the poverty level in a community, the more damage larger schools and school districts inflicted on student achievement. In more affluent communities, the impact of school and district size was quite small, but the poorer the community, the stronger the influence. The achievement gap between children from more affluent and those from less affluent communities was narrower in smaller schools and smaller districts, and wider in larger schools and larger districts. Smaller schools were most effective against poverty when they were located in smaller districts; they were less effective when located in larger districts. Poverty dampened student achievement most in larger schools located in larger districts. The relationship between school size, poverty, and student achievement was as much as three times greater in schools with the largest percentages of African-American students. Recommendations include retaining existing smaller schools, building new small schools, and breaking up larger schools and districts. 14p.

This publication summarizes research on the educational and social benefits of small schools and the negative effects of large schools on students, teachers, and members of the community, as well as the "diseconomies of scale" inherent in large schools. It asserts that research shows that measuring the cost of education by graduates rather than by all students who go through the system suggests that small schools are a wise investment. Using data drawn from 489 schools submitted to design competitions in 1990-2001, the publication concludes that small schools can be built cost effectively and that many districts are doing so. 31p.

Big school districts promised to hold down costs by centralizing functions under one roof and delivering a greater selection of academic offerings and activities, thus improving education. But they have not delivered. Up to a certain size, consolidation can save costs, but above that size, districts experience "diseconomies of scale," including misallocation of funds toward bureaucracy rather than instruction. On average, large districts' standardized test scores fall in the lower end of their expected ranges, while smaller districts' scores fall in the upper end of their ranges. Large schools are concentrated in large districts, and big schools experience the same problems as big districts. Parents are not happy with big districts--their complaints over test scores, curriculum, taxes, or anything else always come back to the issue of control. In a big district, the bureaucracy makes the important decisions, and parents feel alienated. Some districts have tried to create sub-schools that share a common school building or to create sub-districts or local councils, but they fail to address the issue of control. Limiting the size of districts and schools and creating smaller districts will improve academics and efficiency and encourage public participation by bringing issues back to the local level. This will spur innovation, flexibility, and commitment by parents and teachers. 14p.

Examines the attitudes of teachers, parents and students on whether size matters in education. Parents whose children attend small high schools were more likely to praise academics and say struggling students get help, while parents whose children were in large schools reported more students falling through the cracks. Teachers say that large schools are more likely to be overcrowded but also provide more academic options. Students report many problems, such as drug and alcohol abuse, carry across large and small schools. But school size is not a major concern for any of the groups, and teachers say small class sizes are more important. 60p.

The case studies in this booklet highlight how five communities, in big cities and small towns, overcame the obstacles inherent in creating good new schools in existing neighborhoods. There is mounting evidence that small schools provide a better quality education than large ones. Among the obstacles faced in establishing new schools in old areas are: (1) school building standards, codes, and regulations; (2) difficulty in acquiring land; (3) districts have lost the skill to build schools; and (4) building “greenfield” schools is more familiar. The Oyster School in Washington, D.C., is an example of a school modernized through parent efforts when the school system was not able to find the funds for improvement of the facility. Sharing the existing space with an apartment building, at the cost of some space, resulted in a renovated school. In Pomona, California, a school was built at the site of a mall and vacant supermarket. A magnet-type school was built in Dallas, Texas, on the last piece of undeveloped land near a multifamily apartment complex. Two public academies were established in downtown Chattanooga, Tennessee, to attract children whose parents work in town and ensure that both the academies were filled to capacity. Rebuilding on the site of an old school was the solution for Manitowoc, Wisconsin, as it worked to meet the needs of a neighborhood. Some other examples of noteworthy approaches to new schools for old communities are briefly outlined. 20p.

This publication helps communities reduce the costs of maintaining, building, and renovating good, small schools. It includes specific strategies that rural communities have used to reduce the costs of their small schools. It begins by suggesting factors to consider before starting to plan a school facilities project, such as understanding the resistance to small schools that many administrators and legislators may have, and also understanding the importance of examining and questioning state policies. It continues by providing a total of 13 strategies for reducing costs including the importance of good maintenance and siting and using renovation instead of resorting to new construction. The book ends with an extensive list of resources for further information on the strategies.

Schools within schools are autonomous subunits carved from large public schools to create a sense of community and cohesiveness among students and staff. This digest discusses the advantages, drawbacks, varieties, and sources of funding for schools within schools. Designers of these schools seek the advantages of both large and small schools by placing students into small learning communities while using the resources of the larger existing facilities. Advantages include higher test scores relative to larger schools; enhancement of students' self-perceptions, both socially and academically; higher attendance and lower dropout rates; fewer discipline problems; and greater cost effectiveness. Possible drawbacks include emphasizing the sense of belonging over academic rigor, loss of teacher seniority if they are transferred between schools, and possible reduction in funding for equipment. School-within-school types are vertical-house plans, ninth-grade house plans, at-risk schools, career and academics clusters, special curriculum models, newcomer schools, parent-participation plans, advisory systems, and charter schools. Administrators must assess the need for and the purpose of their plan before committing resources for school restructuring. Some funding organizations are the Annenberg Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trust, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Education's Smaller Learning Communities program. 4p

Beginning with definitions of the various types of small schools and smaller learning communities, this paper presents research findings about the results well-run small schools produce, discusses the requirements for success as identified by researchers and practitioners, cites barriers to implementing effective small schools, directs readers to some Web resources, and provides an annotated bibliography. 73p

In the past 30 years, research has suggested the need for much smaller high schools. In response, some administrators have attempted to subdivide big high schools into smaller entities. This digest reviews recent research on the movement to break up large schools and discusses five types of error common to such attempts--errors of autonomy, size, continuity, time, and control. Large high schools have frequently been broken up into schools within a school (SWAS) serving 200-500 students. This strategy attempts to personalize the familiar comprehensive high school, but characteristics built into the design of most breakup efforts make it impossible for the SWAS to develop a small-school culture. Five common errors bar many schools from crossing the big/small cultural divide: (1) longstanding big-school traditions and overarching functions undermine SWAS efforts to build their own identities; (2) SWAS are planned to be large enough to have individual principals, but this size ensures that the faculty will be too big to socially construct the vision of the new, small school; (3) specialized programs and experiences segregate younger students from older ones and create more transitions for student to accomplish; (4) traditional schedules prevent a personalized, spontaneous response to an unexpected learning opportunity; and (5) the big building that houses multiple SWAS continues the old control issues of the big school. 4p.

New studies from the 1990s have strengthened an already notable consensus on school size: smaller is better. This policy brief outlines research findings on why size makes a difference, how small is small enough, effective approaches to downsizing, and key barriers. No agreement exists at present on optimal school size, but research suggests a maximum of 300-400 students for elementary schools and 400-800 for secondary schools. Researchers focusing on the interaction between poverty and enrollment size offer a rule of thumb: the poorer the school, the smaller its size should be. Major benefits derived from small schools include: students learn well and often better; violence and behavior problems diminish, and attendance is higher and dropouts fewer. Poor and minority students benefit the most. Positive changes that smallness invites include the forming of strong personal bonds, parent and community involvement, simplicity and focus, improved instructional quality, improved teacher working conditions and job satisfaction, and built-in accountability. Barriers to downsizing include iconic notions of school; lack of time, resources, and technical assistance; system impediments; and cost concerns. State and district policies can support downsizing by providing incentives for creating small schools and removing disincentives that may exist in law or policy. [Author's abstract] 6p.

Provides brief case studies of 22 public school buildings in 12 states, representing urban, suburban, and rural communities, including both district-run and charter public schools. The studies demonstrate these schools' ability to improve academic achievement and behavior in safe, nurturing, and stimulating environments. Case study analysis reveals that on average, smaller schools can provide a safer and more challenging school environment that creates higher academic achievement and graduation rates, fewer disciplinary problems, and greater satisfaction for families, students, and teachers. The studies also suggest that sharing facilities with other organizations can enable schools to offer broader learning opportunities for students, provide higher quality services to students and their families, and present a way to efficiently use tax dollars. 64p.

This report reviews research that compares large schools to small schools in such areas as academic performance, class size benefits, operational problems, and student social development. A list of small school benefits for students, families, teachers, and the institution is included. The research indicates that as more schools- within-schools begin to function autonomously, they may yield desired student benefits at the most reasonable investment in capital and operations. While smaller classrooms appear to improve academic performance, some research also indicates that smaller class sizes can reduce teenage pregnancy rates and the need for disciplinary action. However, greater numbers of smaller classrooms are creating shortages of qualified teachers who can implement successful classroom learning. Efforts to provide smaller classrooms are also forcing school districts to quickly devise capital programs to address greater classroom numbers. Most of the research reviewed concludes that smaller class and school sizes are beneficial, with the greatest positive impact occurring for students from poorer families. Evidence supports the school-within-a-school approach and significant class size reductions in the primary grades. (Contains 14 references.) 4p

Analyzes research on the relationship between school size and student achievement, sociological advantages of smaller campuses, curriculum offering and school size, class size, and equity, while also detailing school organization and grade configuration plans. Includes 26 references. 26p.

This paper focuses on how urban high schools may be not only revitalized but also transformed into institutions that are designed to help students at the crossroads of their academic careers. It discusses the rationale for change, historic highlights of this effort, and a new vision for American high schools. Some of the promising approaches to change include: transforming large impersonal schools into small schools; using whole-school design; reaching out to parents and other community members to increase their involvement in education; and partnering with businesses and universities. The paper highlights the Carnegie Corporation's Schools for a New Society initiative, which has awarded planning grants to 10 community-school district partnerships working on urban high school reform. The paper also focuses on principles outlined by the New Century High Schools for New York City Consortium, a $30 million commitment to high school reform in New York City announced in December 2000 by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Open Society Institute, and the Carnegie Corporation. 14p.