Why Rural Matters 2007 is the fourth in a series of biennial reports analyzing the importance of rural education in each of the 50 states and calling attention to the urgency with which policymakers in each state should address rural education issues. Overall, enrollment in rural schools is up by 15 percent, representing a reversal of the year-over-year declines these communities have seen. While overall enrollment is on the rise the most startling data revealed is the 55% increase in rural minority students, with some states experiencing increases of over 100%. The report also serves as a reminder that many rural schools continue to face a number of challenges, including high poverty levels, low student achievement, low teacher salaries and uneven distribution of Title I funds. 124p.

Discusses the diverse demographic nature of rural school districts, how they are funded, a few particulars of rural poverty, and rural school administration, staffing, facilities, and technology.

Summarizes a study which investigated the lengths of school bus rides in West Virginia in districts with consolidated and non-consolidated schools, and the impact of this commute time on students' participation in extra-curricular activities. The study compared two "high consolidation" with two "low consolidation" districts. Tables compare data on how students get to school, how long it takes them to get to school, how many students travel over the recommended limit of one hour, the relationship of consolidation, mode of travel, travel time, and long bus rides to participation in extra-curricular activities, and the relationship of consolidation to students' aspirations to attend college. The results illustrate a negative effect of consolidation and long commutes on participation in extra-curricular activities, and recommendations to relieve the situation are included. 24p.

Highlights the role that state educational policies have in either magnifying the challenges of declining enrollment, or conversely, mitigating them. The report contains 20 policy recommendations, primarily focused on state funding formulas, but also on state support for facility projects, technology, and cooperative arrangements, as well as strictly local control over consolidation, without state incentives or interference. The recommended state and local policies can buy time and give communities and economies time to rebound and/or adjust to population and revenue loss. 17p.

Presents this small (less than 1500 students) district's plan to re-organize into a three-school system consisting of a preK-3, 4-8, and 9-12 grade facilities. The grades 4-8 school is to be built, the district central office is to be moved to the municipal building (which was formerly a middle school), and the elementary and high schools are to be repaired and renovated. 11p.

In 1919 there were 190,000 one-room schools scattered all around the American countryside. Now there are fewer than 400 left. National Public Radio's Morning Edition profiles one-room schools across America in a series running from December 2005 to June 2006. The webpage provides photographs of the schools, a description of the project, and access to the audio segments.

Reviews the history of and literature on rural school consolidation, defines consolidation, and addresses current research and issues related to consolidation with respect to school size, economies of scale, and student achievement. Includes 89 references. 21p.

Discusses opportunities and benefits for sharing administrative and support services between schools and school districts, particularly as a means to mitigate the necessity to consolidate. Types of shared services described include purchasing, transportation, food service, administrative support, technology, and facilities management. Seven benefits of shared services described are savings, standardization, attracting of highly qualified personnel, retention of local control, flattening out peaks and troughs, and lowering political opposition. Includes 70 references. 29p.

This is the third in a series of reports analyzing the importance of rural education in each of the 50 states. The report is framed around 22 statistical indicators grouped into four gauges measuring: (1) the relative importance of rural education, (2) the level of poverty in rural schools, (3) other socio-economic challenges faced by rural schools, and (4) the policy outcomes achieved in rural education. Data is presented in aggregate percentages as well as by state-by-state results.

This policy brief highlights some of the leading policy issues faced by states, local school districts, policymakers, education leaders, and concerned citizens. The document is organized into five sections: 1) Guiding Principles of Sound Fiscal Management Systems; 2) Best Fiscal Practices; 3) Rural-Specific Concerns and Strategies in the Budget Process; 4) State Policy Options to Ensure Sound Fiscal Management; and 5) Conclusion. 30p.

Defines the essential components of a fair and effective state school facilities policy and suggests a series of policies in five key areas: 1) Setting priorities for approving and funding school facilities; 2) Adopting funding mechanisms that do not penalize rural and low wealth districts; 3) Creating standards for school facilities; 4) Defining the appropriate state role, setting ethical standards, and encouraging local participation; and 5) Establishing processes to evaluate state school facility programs and projects. Appendices offer guidelines and a checklist for state school facility programs and referrals to additional resources. (Includes 76 references.) 23p.

Advocates competition over consolidation as a means to achieve school efficiency in Arizona, with school choice and expansion of charter school opportunities recommended. The costs and experiences of Arizona and other states with consolidation as well as the impact of consolidation on student achievement are discussed. 46p.

Assesses the effect of school consolidation on education, revealing that savings realized by consolidating schools did not necessarily yield educational benefits, as graduates of smaller schools appear to have fared better as wage earners. Larger districts made up of smaller schools do, however, show management and educational achievement advantages. A review of the literature, explanation of the study methodology, and 25 references are included. 31p.

What rural communities can learn from the hermit crab is that finding and reusing cost-effective accommodations can be a brilliant survival tactic. This book offers educators and community members a range of such strategies to help keep their small schools in their communities. Four chapters cover the following themes: 1) the case for keeping rural schools local; 2) the condition of rural school facilities and obstacles to their improvement; 3) creative solutions to rural facilities challenges; and 4) lessons learned and strategies to consider for planning with the community, identifying assets and liabilities, working with policy, and funding the project. 128p.

Between 1990 and 2000, total enrollment in West Virginia decreased 11%, 202 schools were closed, and education spending increased by 16%. Per pupil expenditures increased more in West Virginia than in any other state, but student achievement remained stagnant during this period. Transportation and administrative costs rose in spite of the declining numbers of students. This report includes analysis of primary state policies that have led to consolidation including: 1) construction and renovations requirements that mandate minimum enrollments; 2) school funding formulas that discourage efficiency and flexibility; 3) transportation allowance that has no upper limit other than cost per mile traveled. Includes 8 references. 31p.

In many states, receiving state aid to build a new school--or renovate an existing one--is contingent on compliance with state policies that state the minimum acreage necessary for a particular type of school. This report finds that these minimum acreage requirements--imposed in 23 states--often create special problems for rural school districts. This explains the kinds of policies in effect in various states, and outlines their impacts on small and rural school districts. 15p.

From 1750 through about 1950, the one-room schoolhouse was a common fixture on the American landscape, with as many as 200,000 in total across the land. Today, approximately 450 one-room schoolhouses are still in use. This book is a celebration rather than a serious study of this American icon. It provides a tour of these structures still standing, detailing the best examples from forty-eight states, exploring working schools, some in existence for more than 100 years, schools restored as historic museums, and schools converted into private residences. 208p.

Reports that the Dept. of Interior, which administers Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Schools, does not collect and therefore has little data on which to base its school budgets. The researchers learned that BIA schools spent less on instruction and more on facilities than comparable public schools, and their transportation budgets did not cover actual costs. However, the goal of determining adequacy of these funding formulas was not achieved due to lack of data. 57p.

Describes the extensive busing of West Virginia school students, resulting in high per- pupil transportation expenses, and long bus rides for many students. School consolidation is blamed for the situation, with students and families complaining about the detriment to extracurricular activities, as well as family and community life. The improvement of existing community-based school facilities are proposed as a solution. 18p.

Describes the problem of deferred maintenance for school facilities, especially from the perspective of small rural districts. It examines the extent, causes, and consequences of deferred maintenance as well as recommendations for policy, practice, and funding that can help correct this national problem. 23p.

This book addresses funding for school facilities. Contents of section 1, "Overview and Scope of the Problem," are: (1) "Unmet School Infrastructure Funding Need as a Critical Educational Capacity Issue: Setting the Context" (Faith E. Crampton); (2) "Financing School Infrastructure Needs: An Overview across the 50 States" (Catherine C. Sielke); (3) "Canadian Approaches to the Financing of School Infrastructure" (Vivian J. Hajnal); and (4) "Financing Captial Facilities in Higher Education" (Mary McKeown-Moak). Section 2, "Current Challenges to Funding of School Infrastructure," contains the following chapters: (5) "Capital Needs and Spending in Urban Public School Systems: Policies, Problems, and Promises" (James G. Cibulka and Bruce S. Cooper); (6) "Funding School Infrastructure in Rural America" (Jeffrey Maiden); (7) "Infrastructure Funding Considerations and Students with Disabilities" (William T. Hartman); (8) "School Finance Litigation: One Strategy To Address Inequities in School Infrastructure Funding" (David C. Thompson and Faith E. Crampton); (9) "Funding Technology versus Bricks and Mortar: Can We Have It All?" (Faith E. Crampton, Janis M. Hagey, and Kathleen C. Westbrook); and (10) "Should Principals Be Involved in School Renovations?" (Brian O. Brent and Marie Cianca). Part 3, "The Future of School Infrastructure Funding," contains the following chapter: (11) "Striking a Balance in School Infrastructure Funding" (David C. Thompson). 270p.

Rural school districts seldom have a comprehensive facility improvement plan nor the staff or time to develop a plan. Support from the rural community for new schools or upgrades to current facilities are affected by economic conditions and traditional attitudes. This discusses how communication, collaboration, and consensus building together can create an effective way to work with the rural school district. 4 p.

A study identified community-level characteristics associated with the presence or absence of a school. Data from the 1990 Census and the New York Department of Education identified 64 villages in New York with populations of 500 or less, 36 of which had schools, and 233 villages with populations of 501-2,500, 192 of which had schools. Results indicate that for the smallest rural communities, the presence of a school was associated with many social and economic benefits. Housing values were considerably higher in small villages with schools, and municipal infrastructure was more developed. Occupational structure differed qualitatively, in that places with schools had more people employed in more favorable occupational categories and more employment in civic occupations. While average household income was not markedly different across places with and without schools, income inequality and welfare dependence was lower in villages with schools. This study shows that schools serve as important markers of social and economic viability and vitality, and that the money that might be saved through school consolidation could be forfeited in lost taxes, declining property values, and lost business. 15p.

With the promise of broader curriculum and huge tax savings, West Virginia has closed more than 300 schools, one in every five, since 1990. In 2002, the Charleston Gazette investigated the outcomes of the state’s consolidation efforts in the series, “Closing Costs.” Some of the findings include: 1)The state has spent more than $1 billion on school consolidation; 2)the school closings didn’t save taxpayers money; 3) West Virginia counties statewide spend a higher percentage of their budgets on maintenance and utilities now than they did five years ago, despite consolidation; 4) the number of local administrators has increased by 16% in the last 10 years despite a 13% decrease in student enrollment and closing of over 300 schools; 5) the number of state-level administrators increased and their salaries nearly doubled between 1990 and 2002; and 6) West Virginia spends more of its education dollar on transportation than any other state; rising transportation costs have forced counties to slash funding from classrooms, offices, and cafeterias. 3p.

Relates the experiences of small school advocates who felt blocked from the school planning process after West Virginia awarded its counties planning grants in 1998. The author cites a post-planning survey that found flaws in the planning process, with parents and students typically shut out of the process. A climate of exclusion, secrecy, and conflict of interest is cited, and case studies from five counties are included. 13p.

This publication summarizes research on the educational and social benefits of small schools and the negative effects of large schools on students, teachers, and members of the community, as well as the "diseconomies of scale" inherent in large schools. It asserts that research shows that measuring the cost of education by graduates rather than by all students who go through the system suggests that small schools are a wise investment. Using data drawn from 489 schools submitted to design competitions in 1990-2001, the publication concludes that small schools can be built cost effectively and that many districts are doing so. 31p.

Grade-span configuration refers to the range of grades within a school. Grade span is an important issue to various factions in public education, including advocates of middle schools and rural educators concerned with the association between grade fragmentation and school consolidation. This digest focuses on research that has examined the relationship between grade span and student achievement. While many case studies of grade-span effects in particular schools exist, little research has been done using techniques to control for confounding factors. Five studies using such techniques are briefly described. These used data from 18 New York City schools, 700 rural Louisiana schools, 1,001 Texas schools, 163 rural Maine schools, and 330 Pennsylvania schools. In general, the studies suggest that achievement in the middle grades is higher in schools having an elementary-wide configuration than in those with a middle-grades configuration. In a K-8 configuration, absence of school-to-school transitions and greater continuity of experience may contribute to higher achievement. However, only one of the studies considered the instructional or interpersonal dimensions of school life. Further research is needed to disentangle the effects of grade span from those of its corollaries. (Contains 12 references.) 4p.

This publication helps communities reduce the costs of maintaining, building, and renovating good, small schools. It includes specific strategies that rural communities have used to reduce the costs of their small schools. It begins by suggesting factors to consider before starting to plan a school facilities project, such as understanding the resistance to small schools that many administrators and legislators may have, and also understanding the importance of examining and questioning state policies. It continues by providing a total of 13 strategies for reducing costs including the importance of good maintenance and siting and using renovation instead of resorting to new construction. The book ends with an extensive list of resources for further information on the strategies.

Evaluates the cost impacts of consolidation in rural school districts in New York over the 1985 to 1997 period. Holding student performance constant, school district consolidation substantially lowered operating costs, particularly when small districts were combined. The operating cost savings ranges from 22 percent for two 300-pupil districts to 8 percent for two 1,500-pupil districts. In contrast, consolidation lowers capital costs only for relatively small districts, and capital costs increase substantially when two 1,500-pupil districts come together. Overall, consolidation is likely to lower the costs of two 300-pupil districts by over 20 percent, to lower the costs of two 900-pupil districts by 7 to 9 percent, and to have little, if any, impact on the costs of two 1,500-pupil districts. State aid to cover the adjustment costs of consolidation appears to be warranted, but only in relatively small districts. Includes 44 references 56p.

State policies greatly affect the decisions rural districts make about building or renovating school facilities. State, federal, and local mechanisms for funding school facilities are briefly described. Some states require a specific percentage of growth or decline in student population or a minimum number of students as a prerequisite for funding. Such policies ignore the many diseconomies of large-scale facilities and often force consolidation of small rural schools. In many small rural districts, population loss erodes the tax base, and taxpayers are reluctant to pass bonds to build schools. Population growth can increase property tax income but may also compel the community to incur more debt to house new students. Policies that require substantial acreage for school facilities may force districts to select sites away from population centers, creating large schools dependent on buses and automobiles. Even if the land is donated, bringing infrastructure to the site can be expensive. Few states fund maintenance, so districts often defer needed work, resulting in costly repairs or loss of buildings. In several states, districts are ineligible for renovation funding if estimated costs exceed a specified portion of new construction costs. However, estimates may exclude the value of the existing buildings, land, infrastructure, and intangible assets such as status as a community hub. Some states require an approved facility design, but adapting a site to a plan instead of creating a plan for a site may incur excessive costs. Community participation in the planning of a school helps assure support and long-term investment in the facility. 4p.

Because school systems throughout America depend on local property taxes for much of their revenue, districts with poor property valuations, especially rural districts, are facing fiscal crises. In response to a lawsuit filed in 1991, the Ohio Supreme Court twice decided that the state's heavy reliance on local property taxes for school funding violated provisions in the Ohio Constitution, mandating a thorough and efficient system of common schools throughout the state. The state responded with a "cookie cutter" program of school construction and renovation based on minimum numbers of enrollments and class sizes. This program is forcing school closings and consolidation. Meanwhile, the state has not yet developed equitable per-pupil funding formulas, overhauled its school financing system, provided enough money for the construction and renovation program, or paid for unfunded and partially funded mandates. The issue is still before the state's Supreme Court. Rural Action, a regional organization dedicated to social, economic, and environmental justice, has launched an initiative to help citizens learn about funding and facilities issues, develop priorities for their schools, develop leadership talent, and translate their ideas into action. It has published a series of "Little Red School Books" clarifying tax terms, mechanisms, and policies; compiling readings and resources; and helping communities learn how to set goals in advance of design and construction. It has also organized events where students and teachers meet with state legislators, architects, and agency representatives to explain what their communities need and want. 10p

Summarizes research conducted in West Virginia that shows how large schools benefit affluent students but cause problems for low-income students, and that the magnitude of negative effects on low-income students is more than twice that of the positive effect on affluent students. The author uses this evidence to dispute the value of school consolidation in the largely rural state and impoverished state. Similar findings from Georgia, Ohio, Texas, and Montana are cited. 10p.

Decries the long school bus rides endured by children in several West Virginia school districts where many schools have been consolidated. Examples of some children's extreme ride times are described, as are the expense of busing, loss of extra-curricular activities, threats to children's health and safety, and the myth of greater class offerings at the consolidated schools. 10p.

This handbook informs school personnel and the business community about the opportunities available to assist rural community's efforts in revitalizing their education systems.The handbook's first two sections examine the different funding sources available for school improvement programs and loan eligibility, and discusses the benefits lenders can realize when providing these loans. The third, and final, section details the components of the Qualified Zone Academy Bonds (QZAB) financing tool covering eligibility criteria, the required business pledges, how to quality for a QZAB, tax treatments, and benefits to lenders. An example of a QZAB success story is also provided. An addendum lists examples of different community facilities programs. 25p.

It is now widely recognized that small schools are more productive and effective than larger schools. Yet, public officials and professional educators in many rural areas continue to believe that small schools are inefficient and ineffective, a way of thinking reflected in closed schools, angry residents, and long bus rides for students. About a quarter of U.S. high schools remain small (with fewer than 400 students in grades 9-12). Part research report and part handbook for action, this book discusses the general status of small rural high schools, takes a closer look at four small high schools that are flourishing despite being located in communities of very modest means, and offers guidance to administrators and policymakers who would like to keep their small high schools but must grapple with numerous problems. 207p.

The decision to renovate or replace a school building is the starting point for a long and challenging journey with many phases: planning, development, and project delivery and construction. Each phase requires different levels of expertise, skills, and activities. The challenge of a rural facility project is to find leadership to provide guidance through all phases of the project. This chapter describes an approach to project management that can help the school district leadership to successfully interact with the construction management team while facilitating open, respectful, and effective communication with local stakeholders. This approach--the project cost management system (PCMS)--has proved successful in rural school construction projects in Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota. Key to the success of this approach is a project manager with a good understanding of community needs and a good grasp of the technical aspects of school facility construction. This individual has responsibility for both developing community consensus and managing the technical details of the construction process. The various phases of PCMS are described, along with the role of the project manager in each: (1) the planning process (forming a facilities study committee, identifying needs related to building code violations and to new educational models and technologies, and seeking broad-based input from staff and community); (2) design workshops to develop the plan; (3) developing community consensus; (4) bond referendum campaign; and (5) project delivery and construction. 13p.

The passage of a bond issue in support of school building construction or renovation can be one of the most difficult activities for a rural school district. The process of getting a bond passed requires a delicate mix of public relations, community education, and consensus building. In this chapter, a superintendent in a rural district describes his experience working to pass a bond issue to build a new elementary school. The story provides several lessons about passing school bond issues. First, credible leadership from within the school system is important. The superintendent must be viewed as serving the overall good of the school, and the school board and school staff must actively support the bond's passage. Second, community outreach and communication are critical parts of the political process. A well-orchestrated public relations campaign can be helpful, and the importance of sharing information with senior citizens cannot be overstated. It is also important to include members of all segments of the community in project planning and keep the local newspapers informed. Finally, the hard work of volunteers is invaluable in achieving success. 14p.

While the condition of rural school facilities varies across the country, most rural school districts face similar issues as they consider new facility construction, renovations, or additions. These issues are how to gain public support for funding, how to make the best use of local resources, how to design buildings that meet a variety of community needs, and how to design facilities that optimize instruction and use of technology. This book contains seven edited papers presented at the National Working Conference on Improving Rural School Facilities, held in Kansas City (Missouri) in March 1998. The papers are: (1) "Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action" (Sarah Dewees, Glen Earthman); (2) "Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts: Variations among the States and the Case of Arkansas" (Mary F. Hughes); (3) "Preserving Heritage While Restoring and Improving Facilities: A Rural Community's Experience" (Burton Edward Dickerson); (4) "Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach" (Dennis Jensen); (5) "Gaining Rural Community Support for a Bond Issue: A Superintendent's Experience" (Stephen Dean Bohrer); (6) "Maintaining Respect for the Past and Flexibility for the Future: Additions and Renovations as an Integrated Sequence" (Dan Swedberg); and (7) "Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process" (Angelo Passarelli, Wade Goehring, Anne Harley). 128p

School facilities needs in rural America and the means to meet them are affected by rural population trends, building inadequacies and obsolescence, and financial problems. Overall, America's schools have seen increased public school enrollments since the mid-1980s, but rural enrollments have declined, particularly in communities with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, rural population trends vary greatly across and within states. Long-term underinvestment in school facilities has left a legacy of crumbling school buildings in many communities. In 1996, 52 percent of rural schools had at least one inadequate building feature, and 54 percent had at least one unsatisfactory environmental factor. In addition, older rural schools had great needs to improve energy efficiency, upgrade the building infrastructure that supports new technology systems, provide flexible spaces to accommodate new teaching formats and expanded school services, and meet access requirements for individuals with disabilities. Because rural districts have lower enrollments, inadequate tax bases, and regulatory limits to their debt, they often cannot generate the revenues required to build school facilities. In addition, many have higher poverty levels and less ability to support local bond initiatives. Practical strategies for funding rural schools include state capital funding, state building authorities, interest-free or tax-credit bonds, converting vacant buildings, and increasing support through lobbying and public awareness campaigns. 21p.

In Waitsburg, Washington, the community was actively involved in a rural school facilities improvement project. The district serves approximately 410 students in three buildings on a single campus. Spurred by growing enrollment and aging facilities, the project included the complete renovation and restoration of a historic school building to serve as a junior high school, as well as remodeling and new construction for the elementary school building. A new superintendent, hired after efforts to build a new elementary school failed, established a facilities steering committee of key community members, launched a monthly district newsletter, held a series of community meetings to gather feedback, and conducted surveys to determine priorities of need for facilities improvement and to offer the community a range of project options. After the scope of the project was established, a bond issue was narrowly passed and state matching funds were obtained. Separate committees worked on the design of each building, with the local historical society involved in decisions about the historic junior high building. To offset the limited funding available, crews of community volunteers did the initial interior demolition work, moved furniture to temporary classrooms in churches and community buildings and then back to the schools when the renovation was complete, and did landscaping. (Contains 26 references and a brief literature review on rural school-community involvement.) 16p.

Fourche Valley School District in central Arkansas has a single K-12 school serving 157 students. The school is thriving in the face of adversity and serves as the true center of the community in the absence of any local governing bodies or civic organizations. Interviews and focus groups revealed various signs of school success and progress: a positive school climate characterized by friendliness and caring; a beautifully maintained school facility; access to technology and distance education partnerships with other small districts; recent improvements in curriculum and instruction and an emphasis on relevance in curriculum; uncommon professional development strategies; extensive engagement of community adults in school activities; strong leadership by the superintendent, principal, and school board president; a long-term partnership with Arkansas Tech University; and addition of new talented teachers following state-mandated pay raises. 26p.

Rural schools face significant challenges in upgrading their technology infrastructures. Rural school districts tend to have older school buildings that have multiple problems and lack climate control, adequate space, and necessary wiring. In rural districts, it may be difficult to find the leadership and expertise needed to provide professional development, create an appropriate technology plan, and manage and maintain building and system infrastructures. In addition, rural districts may not have local companies available or willing to partner with schools in technology projects, and staff members may not have the time or experience to write grant applications for technology development. Wayne (Nebraska) Community School District overcame these difficulties through a collaboration with Wayne State College, the chamber of commerce and city council, local businesses, federal and state agencies, and the students themselves. In 1992, a districtwide committee of diverse stakeholders developed goals and identified needs for a comprehensive technology plan. During the plan's implementation, the nearby college was a constant resource. Stages in the plan included installation of a computer lab, distance education activities, expansion of technology infrastructure with a corporate grant, and development of a communitywide computer network. Lessons learned from the Wayne experience concern the needs for careful planning, continual training of staff and students, and a vision for the future. 14p

This study examines the relationship between school consolidation and district transportation costs, effects on instructional expenditures, and institutional factors supporting consolidation. Data on actual student transportation costs across the United States indicate that despite widespread school and school district consolidation, transportation costs have increased, and transportation costs per child are greater in rural than urban school districts. Given the evidence that economy-of-scale arguments fail in rural school districts in terms of transportation costs, reasons beyond fiscal criteria must be driving consolidation. An analysis of the institutional environment shows how consolidation has been justified according to the exaction of state authority over local school districts, and has been supported through national policy towards housing and land use development. Institutional perspectives of organizational legitimacy and survival would not seem to justify consolidation, but consolidation always terminates some organizational form. Perhaps the organizational form of small schools and weak school districts makes them more susceptible to organizational death by other legitimacy-seeking organizations. It appears that higher transportation costs associated with extensive consolidation in rural areas constrain opportunities to fund quality instruction in rural areas. 53p.

As an alternative to new construction or consolidation, many rural communities are considering the option of retaining their existing schools, upgrading them through renovations, and providing community-sensitive and effective additions as needed. The feeling of being connected to one's community can be enhanced by the continuity of community institutions, and in rural areas the school is an important community institution. The integrated sequence approach to an addition or renovation project is distinguished primarily by the commitment and effort applied to analyzing the existing building and integrating meaningful existing elements with new elements. Challenges to successful school renovation include state and federal building codes and standards, the need for flexible design, and environmental concerns. Steps in the integrated sequence approach involve organizing participants; formulating a plan that considers the life expectancy of existing buildings, elements with potential for reuse, the value of existing building components, and other cost variables; maintaining good communications with the community and the builders during the construction phase; commissioning the building; and final completion. Case histories describe the sequential renovation and development of school buildings in Cambridge, Minnesota, and McGregor, Minnesota. 25p.

This digest examines the problem of upgrading rural school facilities, focusing on specific rural issues, conditions that interfere with teaching and learning, and new funding approaches. Almost half of U.S. public schools are in rural areas and small towns. Close rural school-community relationships may make it easier to make decisions, communicate with the community, and raise funds for facilities improvement. On the other hand, many rural districts have financial disadvantages: low enrollments, which diminish available construction money; lower property values, which lower the potential to borrow money; and high poverty rates. About half of rural and small-town schools report at least one facility problem. In addition to deterioration because of age, many rural schools must cope with new requirements for teaching and learning. These include laboratory classrooms, flexible instruction areas, multimedia centers, adequate space to accommodate parent involvement and an array of social and health services, electrical wiring and conduits for computers and other technology, accommodations for special needs students, and mandated removal of hazardous building materials. Fixing these problems will be costly, and despite increased school construction nationwide, rural districts have not kept up with urban areas. In 1997, Congress authorized Qualified Zone Academy Bonds to make school renovation funding more accessible to poor school districts. (Contains 18 references.) 4p.

Offers guidelines for classroom organization that will accommodate the multiple activities occurring in the multigrade classroom. Outlines an activity-centers approach to classroom design that designates classroom areas for specific purposes. Defines general considerations for planning, including activity level and noise likely to occur during different learning activities, use of visual barriers to define activity centers, placement of teacher and student resources, traffic patterns, age and physical size differences among students, and storage of student belongings. A list of questions clarifies classroom design principles and aspects of a particular classroom plan. Presented in workbook fashion, a three-step design process involves describing the present classroom, identifying specific learning activities that will take place, and drawing the final plan. 37p.

This paper suggests that the fundamental characteristics of a sustainable community are economic security, ecological integrity, quality of life, and empowerment and responsibility. It also asserts that nurturing these characteristics within a rural school can forge stronger links to community, strengthen the local economic base, encourage students to live within the community, and increase the likelihood that the school will be adequately funded. A school can increase the economic security of its community by encouraging local and national businesses to set up branches within the school, by teaching entrepreneurialism, by establishing small student-run ventures, and by offering local and state incentives to attract business partnerships. Schools can contribute to ecological integrity by reflecting the culture, history, and materials of the community in its design. Schools must add to the quality of life as defined by the community. The paper also suggests that it is important that schools empower students with a sense of responsibility and decision making. Strategies for creating sustainable schools include: responding to the variation in types of rural communities; taking advantage of outside expertise; being sensitive to building design, construction, condition, and outfitting; broadening the search for resources and ideas beyond traditional thinking; assessing community assets; and investigating local, state, and federal funding and partnerships. 13p.

Many options exist for improving rural school facilities, among which are questions of school closure versus modernization or replacement. This report addresses the question of the future of the community rural school and how communities, school board, and school executives can approach school improvement problems. It defines and examines various available options in the areas of facility improvements, school maintenance, building operations, modernization. In addressing the issue of school closure, it lists several questions that should be answered so that the closure decision is in the best interests of the students and also supports the school district mission. The report also explores the option of reorganizing rural schools as either magnet, charter, or theme schools as well as using facilities for other educational or non-education uses. Finally, the option of marketing the rural school to students in neighboring school districts is examined. (Contains 2 references). 24p.

While new school construction bond elections for rural school districts can be difficult to pass, success is possible. This paper presents one superintendent's effective campaign to build a $4.2 million elementary school within a rural community. It reveals the need to continually reinforce the message of committing to educational quality combined with productive communication with the school board and continuous efforts to gain community support. Successful school construction bond referendums are shown to have that best chance of success through intense voter registration efforts, continual canvassing, community meetings, and mass mailings to sway public opinion. It is argued that successful passage can also be aided with the creation of a long-range plan designed to convince voters that the need is legitimate. (Contains 12 references). 14p.

This paper profiles the state of rural schools' infrastructure, rural districts' economic problems, and the need to upgrade school facilities. It provides a context for improving rural facilities, including discussions on ways to upgrade systems for technology needs, energy efficiency, and handicap accessibility. Additionally, it offers an analysis of schools in the pre-industrial age, prior to World War II, post war, and in the age of technology. The paper presents some of the minimum standards for a quality facility, including space standards, heating/ventilation/air-conditioning requirements, public review, and federal funding. Final comments address how inadequate educational facilities can affect instruction, and the role of the school facility within a rural community. 17p.

This paper addresses how rural school facilities are financed. It provides an overview of school facilities funding in the United States as summarized by the literature, a mini study of school facilities funding in Arkansas, and comments from practitioners and researchers on the issues presented. It argues that the same equity issues raised on expenditure per pupils and equal educational opportunity should be raised in school facility funding too; and educational quality, including that of school facilities, should not rely on the wealth of the local community. Arkansas, one state that does depend on local wealth for the quality of school buildings, is examined in terms of its great diversity between quality and ability to support school facilities. 32p.

Rural schools often have difficulty in developing and implementing a 21st century, K-12 technology plan. This report describes one rural school district's (Wayne, Nebraska) successful efforts at technology integration. It discusses the efforts of installing 25 networked computers in the local high school, linking buildings with fiber-optic cables, automating the middle school library, and creating a distance education program by upgrading software and hardware to link the schools to the community via the Internet. The report reveals that rural schools can succeed in integrating technology into the curriculum, but it takes a united effort combined with the rural districts' willingness to seek help from regional and state agencies. (Contains 3 references). 15p.

This paper explores the ways in which rural communities can enhance education in their own towns. Further, the paper highlights the conditions necessary for student success, indicating that this is best controlled when schools are the right size, when there is documentation of achievement, and when school buildings are safe and in good condition. It argues that today's increasingly technological sophistication in education requires specialized spaces that match the educational goals of the activities for which these spaces will be used. Such specialized areas, it claims, require enhanced infrastructure if they are to contribute to student learning. Schools in rural communities that are attractive and well-maintained, with quality curricular and extracurricular programming for all ages are investments in the community that do not demand consolidation to meet 21st century needs. 15p.

The community/school relationship is considered vital in helping rural school districts adapt to changing needs through renovation and/or expansion of its school facilities. How these needs are met involves choices that include consolidation with another district, new school construction, or renovation and adding on to an existing school. This paper argues that the addition/renovation choice can often be a successful one in meeting the changing needs of a school or district, and presents the "integrated sequence" method for analyzing an existing building's reusable resources in meeting those needs. It presents an overview on how the rural school is the center of community life and the consequences of consolidating school districts followed by a discussion of the issues surrounding an integrated sequence of development, such as site size, the planning process, building valuation, creation of a flexible design, issues involving construction, and environmental concerns. Two case histories of school districts using this approach are presented. (Contains 13 references). 22p.

This report examines the community-school relationship in a rural school facilities improvement project in Waitsburg, Washington. It offers a brief overview describing the school district followed by an in-depth review of the Waitsburg community's role in their facilities improvement project, a project that included the complete renovation and restoration of a historic school building serving as a junior high facility and the remodeling and new construction to upgrade the elementary school building. The report shows the importance of having positive contributions by community groups and individuals in completing these projects. It further reveals how productive involvement in school district operations is fostered through open communication, positive responsiveness to community wishes, and the creation of a sense of community ownership. 26p.

For many remote northern communities, especially Native American communities, the renovation or design construction and heating of the school would be more culturally and technologically appropriate if local materials and expertise were utilized. In addition there would be widespread beneficial outcomes for the quality of life in the local community. This paper focuses on the de-localization of northern rural communities. The second part of the paper explores how the design, construction and maintenance of the log school could reduce de-localization and contribute significantly to the cultural, economic and technical well-being of the community particularly its educational system. 22p.

School improvement in rural places cannot succeed without attention to the rural context of learning. Most especially, smaller schools need to be preserved and sustained in rural areas, particularly impoverished communities, for the sake of student achievement and personal development. This school improvement tool suggests the character of a "good rural community school" and briefly considers the relationships among learning, community, and facility construction in rural areas. A 20-point "Rural Community Schools' Facility Checklist" is included that reflects connections to community, curriculum, and issues related to quality of life in rural places. 9p.

The characteristics of one-room rural schools in Barbour County, West Virginia, are representative of one-room rural school characteristics in general. These include building design and problems; teacher' lives and duties, certification, salaries, and training; scheduling and curriculum; games; punishments; and hot lunch programs. Since one-room schools no longer operate in Barbour County, data included personal communications with people who had taught in or attended the schools. A historical background discusses state school laws from 1642 to 1936. A literature review details general characteristics of rural one-room schools: design, construction, and facilities; restrictions on teachers' private lives; teachers' instructional and extracurricular duties; use of the school as an agency for community change; teacher certification requirements and salaries; establishment of normal schools in West Virginia for teacher training; inservice education; daily scheduling and curriculum in the schoolhouse; games played; undesirable and appropriate punishments; early hot lunch programs; and facility lighting, heating, and ventilation problems. Drawing on personal anecdotes, characteristics of Barbour County's one-room schools are discussed in relation to prevailing characteristics nationwide. 85p.

This paper reviews the literature on the noneducational impacts of rural schools on their communities and provides an annotated bibliography of sources. Taken as a whole, the literature suggests that the school-community relationship is multifaceted. Community schools have positive economic impacts related to local employment, retail sales, and infrastructure; have positive social impacts related to social integration and collective community identity; function as an arena for local politics; provide a resource for community development through student projects and school-to-work programs; and offer a delivery point for health and social services, improving access to health care and other services. The annotated bibliography has two sections containing 43 research papers and 68 advocacy and position papers. Entries were published 1938-98 (primarily in the 1980s and 1990s) and include journal articles, federal documents, conference papers, monographs, books, book chapters, research bulletins, and master's theses. 48p.

Presents anecdotes from Montana, the Navajo Reservation, West Virginia, and Colorado that describe long school bus rides and the hardships that accompany them. Research on busing is reviewed and found to be scarce and insubstantial. Two of the most recent researchers have found that busing could be considered exploitation of children's time, and that students with large average times on buses report lower grades, poorer levels of fitness, fewer social activities, and poor study habits. Knowing more about the effects of busing might lead to better choices about closing, maintaining, or opening new schools in rural areas. 7p.

As late as 1913, half of U.S. schoolchildren were enrolled in the country's 212,000 one-room schools--the heart of American education. Although only about 428 of these schools remain in use as of 1994, the country school continues to be a powerful cultural symbol. The first section of this book examines country schools' educational and cultural legacy. Chapters (1) provide an overview placing country schools in the larger social and historical framework of American education; (2) describe the country school curriculum, discipline, and teaching methods; (3) present anecdotes and memoirs describing teacher education, teaching conditions, and teachers' lives on the Western frontier in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; (4) portray the role country schools played as rural community centers; (5) discuss the assimilation of immigrants and minorities in rural schools, focusing on Native Americans, Blacks, and Hispanics; and (6) look at public, private, and parochial country schools in operation today. The second section examines the great variety of design in country school architecture, including schoolhouse sites, architect designs, building forms, building materials and techniques, classroom furniture, and building standardization. The third section discusses the preservation and restoration of country schools; describes new uses as museums, centers for living history programs, and community centers; presents preservation case studies; and lists one-room schools, by state, that remain in public ownership. This book contains approximately 275 references, 400 photographs, numerous illustrations, and an index. 296p.

The number of public high school districts in North Dakota declined from 256 to 186 during 1970-94; 22 school districts were eliminated in the last 5 years of that period. A survey was conducted in eight communities (four pairs) that had gone through school district consolidation and school closing during 1991-94. Community populations in 1994 ranged from 45 to 696, and 6 communities had experienced recent population declines. Schools that closed had 47-97 students in their last year, while consolidated schools had 75-677 students in 1994. Responses were received from 601 of 2,190 residents surveyed and covered perceived reasons for school consolidation; impacts on community social infrastructure, retail trade, and quality of life; consequences for students; and ease of transition. In the past 10 years, participation in community organizations increased in host (receiving) communities and declined in vacated (school-closing) communities, while retail trade and number of businesses declined in both types of communities. Quality of life scores did not differ by type of community before consolidation, declined in both types after consolidation, and were considerably lower in vacated communities than in host communities after consolidation. Both groups felt that students were better off academically and socially after consolidation, and that having public meetings was the most important factor in easing the process of consolidation. 60p.

This paper reports on recommendations resulting from a 1994 conference conducted by the Delaware Rural Assistance Council on "Designing Rural Schools as Community Learning and Service Centers." Specifically, the purpose of the conference was to develop information, insights, and plans that would help the staffs of educational, health, and social service agencies make decisions leading to better coordination of rural community services. Participants included administrators, teachers, counselors, nurses, support staff, and school board members from rural school districts in Delaware and representatives of community health and social services agencies. A number of key concepts and recommendations were generated, dealing with identifying stakeholders involved in the process of designing rural schools as community learning and service centers; identifying the essential needs of children, youth, and families; developing initial action plans; and exploring ways in which existing county interagency councils can work more closely with schools. Twenty-five recommendations directed toward the Delaware RAC, school districts, and community service agencies cover advocacy, networking, and planning strategies for integrating services in rural school districts. 7p.

In 1994, a 2-day symposium was conducted on a broadened, more inclusive mission for rural schools--rural schools functioning as community learning and service centers. The symposium aimed to enhance the knowledge base related to five key dimensions that must be planned, implemented, and evaluated when designing rural schools in this fashion: community development; economic development; partnerships among family, school and community; school-to-work transition; and integrating education, health, and social services. 43p.

This is designed to provide a school or district with background and a framework for a disaster plan, including a checklist of contingencies. Covers legal implications, emergency food and water supply, computers in a disaster, disaster tools, emergency security, data and record saving, and disaster stress trauma. 169p.

An overview of the history of rural school consolidation in north central Iowa reveals that by 1994, 9 of the 10 high schools in towns of less than 500 in 1940 had closed, and 3 of the 5 high schools in towns with populations of 500-999 had closed. However, all three towns with populations over 1,000 in 1940 had high schools in 1993-94. This down-sizing trend is evident in all areas of Iowa in that the number of towns with a high school decreased to 727 in 1950, to 419 in 1970, and to 359 in 1990. This study examined whether a greater percentage of incorporated towns in Iowa with a high school had a population increase, compared to towns without a high school during the same decades. During 1930-50, rural areas lost population, but the state gained and the number of places with high schools did not change. During 1950-70, population trends were the same, but a greater number of places lost their high schools to consolidation. During 1970-90, the state lost population, and the number of communities without a high school continued to increase. Data analysis revealed that half the communities with a high school gained a significant amount (5 percent or more) of population over 2 or more decades, and within the same time frame, three-fourths of communities without a high school were losing population. This study concludes that a community without a high school loses population faster when compared to all the towns losing population during the same time period. 12p.